Lecture 12—Was Jesus a Pharisee?
In this lecture, we discuss the emergence of the major Jewish sects
in the late Second Temple period, specifically the Sadducees and the
Pharisees. We compare and contrast the beliefs of these two sects
with regard to resurrection of the dead, immortality of the soul, and free
will and conclude by considering whether Jesus was a Pharisee.
Jewish Sects
1. During the Hasmonean period, various Jewish factions or groups
came into being in Judea. Josephus calls these groups hairesis,
which is Greek for “heresies.” The Latin word is secta, which
means “sects” or “philosophies.” Today’s negative connotation of
these terms comes out of Christianity, not early Judaism. ln fact,
in their original usage, the Latin secta and the Greek hairesis
were simply neutral terms meaning a school of thought.
2. Josephus specifically mentions three sects that developed
among the Jews: the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the
particularly saintly Essenes. Although there is no scholarly
agreement about the background against which these sects first
developed, generally, scholars think that they originated and
crystallized by the mid-2"“ century B.C. ln other words, these
sects developed against the background of the Heliodorus affair
and the Maccabean Revolt.
3. The Sadducees originated from the Zadokites, who controlled
the priesthood in the Temple of Jerusalem until the Heliodorus
affair. At the point when the Zadokites lost control of the high
priesthood in the Temple, the Zadokite line then split into at least
three branches.
4. One branch of this family was called the Oniads, named after
Onias lll, Onias IV, and their descendants. Sometime around the
middle of the 2"“ century B.C., Onias IV left Judea and went to
Egypt, where he established a temple dedicated to the God of
Israel at a site called Leontopolis. The Oniads officiated as the
priests in this temple until the temple was closed by the Emperor
Vespasian in 73 A.D.
5. Another branch of the Zadokites was central in the formation
of the Essene sect. A third branch of the Zadokite family, the
Sadducees, remained in Jerusalem, forming an alliance with the
Hasmoneans and becoming an integral part of Jewish society
for the next two centuries.
The Sadducees
1. The information we have about the Sadducees actually comes
from sources that were hostile to them. These sources include
Josephus, who was a Pharisee. The New Testament and
rabbinic literature are also associated with the Pharisees.
2. The Sadducees were members of the priestly class and the
aristocracy-wealthy members of Judean society consisting
mostly of the Jerusalem elite. Not surprisingly, the Sadducees
wanted to maintain the status quo. They were concerned with
preser\/ing political and social stability in order to secure and
retain their own economic interests. What’s more, they favored a
policy of cooperation with foreign rulers.
3. ln addition to being politically conser\/ative, the Sadducees
were also religiously conser\/ative. They recognized only the
written tradition as holy scripture. ln contrast to the Pharisees,
the Sadducees rejected the principle of oral law-meaning an
oral tradition that made new adaptations or interpretations of the
written law possible.
4. For example, while the Pharisees advocated the idea of a
physical resurrection of the dead, the Sadducees rejected it
because it had no explicit basis in the written law.
The Pharisees
1. The name Pharisees may have derived from the Hebrew word
parash, which means “to separate.” They may have sought to
separate themselves from the dominant priestly class or from
those they considered to be lax in the obser\/ance of biblical
purity laws. Issues of ritual purity and impurity were important to
the Pharisees, who held themselves to much higher standards
than most other Jews (except for the Essenes, who considered
the Pharisees lax).
2. The Pharisees usually referred to themselves not as Pharisees
but by other terms, such as scribe or sage, which means rabbi.
Despite this identification as scribes, scholars debate whether
these were the scribes mentioned in the Gospel accounts. When
the Gospel authors mention scribes, we don’t actually know if
they’re referring to groups within the Pharisees’ circles or other
groups that were separate from them.
3. In fact, the beliefs and opinions of the Pharisees eventually
became decisive through Rabbinic Judaism after 70 A.D. Their
synthesis of free will and determinism and their belief in the
sanctity of oral law ultimately prevailed in Judaism.
4. The Pharisees were not a monolithic or homogeneous group;
in fact, they seem to have been quite diverse. Some of them
lived in cities; others came from rural areas. They were made
up of the lower ranks of priests, craftspeople, small farmers, and
merchants. In a sense, they represented the middle classes.
Immortality and Free Will
1. The Pharisees believed in the existence of angels and spirits.
Josephus describes the Pharisees as follows: “They also believe
that souls have an immortal vigor in them. And that under the
Earth, there will be rewards or punishments according as they
have lived virtuously or viciously in this life.” In Acts of the
Apostles 23:8, we read: “For the Sadducees hold that there is
no resurrection, and that there are no angels or spirits, while the
Pharisees believe in all three.”
2. The Sadducees believed in complete human free will. The
Pharisees, however, emphasized both divine omnipotence and
human freedom and responsibility. On the one hand, God is all
knowing, but on the other hand, humans still have free will.
3. Josephus describes the Pharisees’ belief in free will as follows:
“And when they determine that all things are done by fate, they
do not take away the freedom of men acting as they see fit. Since
their notion is that it has pleased God to make a temperament
whereby what he wills is done, but so that the will of men can act
virtuously or viciously.”
4. This belief was summed up by Rabbi Akiva, who was also a
Pharisee: “All is foreseen, but free will is given.”
5. Of course, most readers of the Gospel accounts are familiar
with the Pharisees and the Sadducees, although most Gospel
references are to the Pharisees. One possible reason for this
is that Jesus’s ministry was based in Galilee, which is where
the Pharisees were influential. The Sadducees were based
in Jerusalem.
6. Another possible reason is that the Pharisees’ form of Judaism
became dominant after 70 A.D., when the Second Temple
was destroyed. The Essenes disappeared from the stage of
history at that time, as did the Sadducees. This is the period
when it’s thought that the Gospels-perhaps except for Mark-
were composed.
The Term Rabbi
1. In a number of passages in the Gospel accounts, Jesus is
addressed by the term rabbi. The Pharisees sometimes referred
to each other as rabbis. According to Mark, “Then Peter said
to Jesus, Rabbi, it is good for us to be here. Let us make
three dwellings.”
2. The term rabbi in Hebrew or Aramaic is an unofficial term of
respect that was generally given to men who were experts in
the Torah, or Jewish law. Literally translated, the term means
“my master” or “one who is greater than myself.” We should
not confuse the term rabbi as used in the time of Jesus with
modern rabbis.
3. Although Pharisees often apparently spoke to each other using
the term rabbi or were addressed as such because they were
considered experts in the law, it doesn’t mean that this term was
used necessarily only to address someone who was a Pharisee.
Anyone who was considered to be an expert in the Torah could
have been addressed by the term rabbi.
Was Jesus a Pharisee?
1. As mentioned earlier, the Pharisaic principle of oral law allowed
for interpretation of the written law. But passages in the Gospels
suggest that Jesus rejected the principle of oral law.
2. For example, Mark 7:1-8 reads: “The Pharisees gathered about
him with some scribes who had come from Jerusalem. They
had noticed that some of his disciples ate their food without first
giving their hands a ceremonial washing to purify them. And
the Pharisees and the scribes asked him, ‘Jesus, why do your
disciples not observe the rules handed down by our ancestors,
but eat food without purifying their hands?”’
3. Notice the reference here to the laws handed down by our
ancestors-that is, oral law. Jesus’s response is very interesting:
“But he said to them, it was about you, hypocrites, that Isaiah
prophesied. So finally in the words this people honors me with
their lips, but their hearts are far from me. In vain do they worship
me, teaching human precepts as doctrines.”
4. Jesus is citing Isaiah 29:13. We see this all throughout the
Gospels: Jesus cites passages from the Hebrew Bible to
support his position. And Jesus then continues in this passage,
saying, “You abandon the commandment of God and hold to
human tradition.”
5. Jesus accuses his opponents here of being hypocrites who worship
God with their lips, their mouths-in oral tradition-not with their hearts.
And he accuses them of improperly following the law by adhering to
human traditions. Here, human traditions refers to the oral
interpretation of the law, not the written law.
6. In other words, if we take seriously this passage and others in
the Gospel accounts, then we conclude that Jesus was not a
Pharisee, and he explicitly rejected the Pharisees’ doctrine of
oral law.
Suggested Reading
Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah, “Pharisees, Sadducees,
and Essenes,” pp. 143-164.
Nickelsburg, Ancient Judaism and Christian Origins, “Religious Groups,”
pp. 160-175.
VanderKam, An Introduction to Early Judaism, “Groups,” pp. 186-192.
Questions to Consider
1. Who were the Sadducees, and what are our sources of information
about them?
2. Who were the Pharisees, and how did their beliefs differ from those
of the Sadducees?
Tuesday, May 10, 2016
Lecture 11—Jesus’s Jewish Lineage
Lecture 11—Jesus’s Jewish Lineage
In 164 B.C., Antiochus V rescinded his father’s edict, and once again,
the Jews were allowed to practice their religion without persecution
and rededicate the Temple of Jerusalem. ln that same year, the
Maccabees renewed their conflict with the Seleucids, with the goal of
gaining independence from Greek rule. ln this lecture, the establishment
and expansion of the Hasmonean, or Maccabean, kingdom provide the
context for understanding the birth narratives of Jesus in the Gospels of
Matthew and Luke.
Independence from Seleucid Rule
1. For a number of years after 164 B.C., battles continued between
the Hasmoneans, or Maccabees, and the Seleucids. ln 160
B.C., Judah was killed in battle and was succeeded as leader
by his brother Jonathan. ln 152 B.C., Jonathan managed to
become ruler of Judea by aligning himself with a contestant to
the Seleucid throne. ln addition to granting Jonathan the right to
rule over the Jews, the Seleucid king also made him high priest.
2. This move was opposed by many Jews because Jonathan,
although of priestly descent, was not a member of the Zadokites.
Moreover, high priests, according to biblical Jewish law, were not
supposed to have blood on their hands, and Jonathan had been
a leader of the revolt and had fought many battles.
3. Jonathan ruled until his death in 142 B.C., when he was
succeeded by his brother Simon, the youngest and last of the
Maccabean brothers. Under Simon, the Jews gained complete
independence from Seleucid rule; Simon ruled until his death in
134 B.C.
Judaization
1. Simon was succeeded as ruler by his son John Hyrcanus l, who
expanded his realm through military conquest, adding Samaria
to the north of Judea, ldumea to the south, and territories
in Transjordan.
2. During the course of these conquests, John Hyrcanus I forced
the populations to convert to Judaism. Flavius Josephus writes,
“He, John Hyrcanus, permitted them to remain in their country
so long as they had themselves circumcised and were willing
to observe the laws of the Jews.” One of the people forcibly
converted to Judaism at this time was the grandfather of King
Herod the Great.
3. Today, according to Jewish tradition, Jews are not allowed to
forcibly convert others to Judaism. In fact, Jews try to discourage
people who want to convert to Judaism. In this period in history,
however, no such prohibition existed. In fact, we have evidence
that, in antiquity, Jews proselytized widely.
4. This forced conversion may have been a kind of Jewish parallel
to Hellenization. Greek successors of Alexander carried out
a policy of Hellenization within their kingdoms-that is, they
spread Greek culture as a means of homogenizing the diverse
populations under their rule. The Hasmonean kings may have
been using Judaism in a similar manner, to spread Jewish
culture-a process of Judaization versus Hellenization.
Rebellion against Alexander Jannaeus
1. John Hyrcanus I ruled until his death in 104 B.C. and was
succeeded by his son Aristobulus I. Aristobulus I ruled only
briefly, until his death of an illness in 103 B.C. He was sur\/ived
by his widow, Salome Alexandra; she then married her husband’s
brother, Alexander Jannaeus, who ruled until 76 B.C.
2. This kind of union, called Ievirate marriage, is mandated by
biblical law. Similar laws go back to the tribal system in lsraelite
society, which was concerned with preserving the bloodlines
of the family. Although biblical law mandates Ievirate marriage,
however, marrying his brother’s widow actually showed
Alexander Jannaeus’s disregard for Jewish law-because
another biblical law prohibits high priests from marrying widows.
3. Jannaeus was cruel and arrogant, and his reign aroused
enormous opposition. ln about 90 B.C., during Sukkot, the Feast
of Tabernacles, which was one of the pilgrimage holidays to the
Temple of Jerusalem, Alexander Jannaeus deliberately went
against prescribed ritual by pouring holy water on the ground
instead of on the altar.
4. Some years after, an open rebellion broke out against Alexander
Jannaeus. During the course of this civil war, Jannaeus’s
opponents called on the Seleucid king Demetrius lll for help.
Demetrius lll invaded and defeated Alexander Jannaeus in a
battle-at which point, however, the Jewish rebels apparently
had second thoughts and decided that they preferred a bad
Hasmonean king to a Seleucid.
The "Seekers of Smooth Things”
1. The civil war against Alexander Jannaeus seems to be echoed
in one of the Dead Sea Scrolls, called the Pesher Nahum, or
the Commentary on Nahum. This genre of literature, pesher,
is a commentary on a biblical book. Typically in these works,
the author cites and interprets the relevant passage in a
biblical book.
2. The Pesher Nahum reads, “This concerns Demetrius King of
Greece, who sought on the counsel of those who seek smooth
things to enter Jerusalem. But God did not permit the city to be
delivered into the hands of the kings of Greece from the time of
Antiochus until the coming out of the rulers of the Kittim.” The
passage goes on: “lnterpreted, this concerns the furious young
lion who executes revenge on those who seek smooth things.”
3. The expression “seekers of smooth things” is an example of
a derogatory pun. The “seekers of smooth things” in Hebrew
is dorshei hachalakot. The pun is dorshei hahalachot, which
means “seekers of the law.” The author of Pesher Nahum is
mocking the group by calling them not the seekers of the law but
the seekers of smooth things-those who take the easy way out.
In fact, “seekers of smooth things” is a name that the author of
this scroll gave to an opposing group-the Pharisees.
Connection between Jesus and David
1. Our review of the various rulers of the Hasmonean kingdom
sets us up for discussing the birth narratives in the Gospels of
Matthew and Luke. Matthew and Luke are the only two of the
four canonical Gospels that contain birth narratives. lf we read
them side by side, we see that the birth narratives in these two
Gospels differ quite a bit.
2. Matthew opens with “an account of the genealogy of Jesus the
Messiah, the son of David.” Notice that this genealogy goes
directly from Jesus to David. Matthew then continues with the
divine conception, Jesus’s birth in Bethlehem, the visit of the
three Magi, and the flight to Egypt. Then, we are introduced to
John the Baptist.
3. In contrast, Luke has a prologue dedicated to Theophilus, which
in Greek means “lover of God.” Then, Luke foretells the birth
of John the Baptist, followed by the birth of Jesus: “ln the sixth
month, the angel Gabriel was sent by God to a town in Galilee
called Nazareth to a virgin engaged to a man whose name was
Joseph of the house of David.” Also in Luke, we read, “Joseph
also went from the town of Nazareth in Galilee to Judea to the
City of David called Bethlehem because he was descended from
the house and family of David.” Notice the repeated emphasis
here on David and the concern to connect Jesus with David.
4. In contrast, the Gospels of Mark and John have no birth narratives.
Instead, they open with the ministry of John the Baptist. We are
first introduced to Jesus as an adult being baptized.
5. The authors of the Gospels of Matthew and Luke clearly went to
great lengths to establish Jesus’s descent from David. This goes
back to biblical Jewish traditions-specifically, several passages
in the Hebrew Bible. Consider, for example, 2 Samuel 7:1-29:
“Moreover, the Lord declares to you that the Lord will make you
a house. When your days are fulfilled and you lie down with your
ancestors, I will raise up your offspring after you who shall come
forth from your body and I will establish his kingdom. David says,
for you O Lord God have spoken. And with your blessing, shall
the house of your servant be blessed forever.”
6. By the 1st century B.C., the late Second Temple period,
many Jews had come to anticipate the arrival of one or more
messianic figures. These messianic figures were eschatological
redeemers, who would come at the end of days, sent by God to
reign over a restored Kingdom of Israel. This restored kingdom
was frequently associated with David.
7. lt is important to realize that, at least among Jews in this period,
these traditions always conceived of the messiahs as human
beings, even if they may have had supernatural qualities. They
were agents of God but not saviors in the Christian sense of
the word.
8. The assumption that Jesus must be descended from David in
order to be the legitimate messiah underlies the birth narratives
in Matthew and Luke. These Gospel authors went to great
lengths to establish Jesus’s descent from David because they
took for granted the principle that to be the legitimate messiah,
Jesus must be descended from David.
9. In order to establish Jesus’s descent from David, the Gospel
authors had to connect Jesus with Bethlehem, which is located
in Judea near Jerusalem. Bethlehem was David’s hometown
and the place where David was crowned king of Israel. The only
problem was that Jesus was from Nazareth in Galilee.
10. Jesus’s origin in Galilee meant that his descent from David was
questionable. Further, his Jewish descent would have been
questionable, as well. ln fact, Galilee had been Judaized by the
Hasmoneans only a century before Jesus’s birth. Therefore,
by Jesus’s time, the population of Galilee included non-Jews
who had been Judaized, or forcibly converted to Judaism, by
the Hasmoneans a century earlier, as well as descendants of
Judean colonists.
11. Matthew and Luke take great pains to insert birth narratives into
their accounts that not only established Jesus as coming from
Judea originally but also established his lineage going back
to David, in order to bolster the claim that he was, in fact, a
legitimate messiah.
Suggested Reading
Goldenberg, The Origins of Judaism, chapter 5, “The First Kingdom of
Judaea?
VanderKam, An Introduction to Early Judaism, “The Hasmonean State,”
pp. 24-32.
Questions to Consider
1. How did the Hasmonean kings deal with the non-Jewish populations
of newly conquered territories, and what was the consequence of
their policy?
2. Who are the “seekers of smooth things” mentioned in some of the
Dead Sea Scrolls?
In 164 B.C., Antiochus V rescinded his father’s edict, and once again,
the Jews were allowed to practice their religion without persecution
and rededicate the Temple of Jerusalem. ln that same year, the
Maccabees renewed their conflict with the Seleucids, with the goal of
gaining independence from Greek rule. ln this lecture, the establishment
and expansion of the Hasmonean, or Maccabean, kingdom provide the
context for understanding the birth narratives of Jesus in the Gospels of
Matthew and Luke.
Independence from Seleucid Rule
1. For a number of years after 164 B.C., battles continued between
the Hasmoneans, or Maccabees, and the Seleucids. ln 160
B.C., Judah was killed in battle and was succeeded as leader
by his brother Jonathan. ln 152 B.C., Jonathan managed to
become ruler of Judea by aligning himself with a contestant to
the Seleucid throne. ln addition to granting Jonathan the right to
rule over the Jews, the Seleucid king also made him high priest.
2. This move was opposed by many Jews because Jonathan,
although of priestly descent, was not a member of the Zadokites.
Moreover, high priests, according to biblical Jewish law, were not
supposed to have blood on their hands, and Jonathan had been
a leader of the revolt and had fought many battles.
3. Jonathan ruled until his death in 142 B.C., when he was
succeeded by his brother Simon, the youngest and last of the
Maccabean brothers. Under Simon, the Jews gained complete
independence from Seleucid rule; Simon ruled until his death in
134 B.C.
Judaization
1. Simon was succeeded as ruler by his son John Hyrcanus l, who
expanded his realm through military conquest, adding Samaria
to the north of Judea, ldumea to the south, and territories
in Transjordan.
2. During the course of these conquests, John Hyrcanus I forced
the populations to convert to Judaism. Flavius Josephus writes,
“He, John Hyrcanus, permitted them to remain in their country
so long as they had themselves circumcised and were willing
to observe the laws of the Jews.” One of the people forcibly
converted to Judaism at this time was the grandfather of King
Herod the Great.
3. Today, according to Jewish tradition, Jews are not allowed to
forcibly convert others to Judaism. In fact, Jews try to discourage
people who want to convert to Judaism. In this period in history,
however, no such prohibition existed. In fact, we have evidence
that, in antiquity, Jews proselytized widely.
4. This forced conversion may have been a kind of Jewish parallel
to Hellenization. Greek successors of Alexander carried out
a policy of Hellenization within their kingdoms-that is, they
spread Greek culture as a means of homogenizing the diverse
populations under their rule. The Hasmonean kings may have
been using Judaism in a similar manner, to spread Jewish
culture-a process of Judaization versus Hellenization.
Rebellion against Alexander Jannaeus
1. John Hyrcanus I ruled until his death in 104 B.C. and was
succeeded by his son Aristobulus I. Aristobulus I ruled only
briefly, until his death of an illness in 103 B.C. He was sur\/ived
by his widow, Salome Alexandra; she then married her husband’s
brother, Alexander Jannaeus, who ruled until 76 B.C.
2. This kind of union, called Ievirate marriage, is mandated by
biblical law. Similar laws go back to the tribal system in lsraelite
society, which was concerned with preserving the bloodlines
of the family. Although biblical law mandates Ievirate marriage,
however, marrying his brother’s widow actually showed
Alexander Jannaeus’s disregard for Jewish law-because
another biblical law prohibits high priests from marrying widows.
3. Jannaeus was cruel and arrogant, and his reign aroused
enormous opposition. ln about 90 B.C., during Sukkot, the Feast
of Tabernacles, which was one of the pilgrimage holidays to the
Temple of Jerusalem, Alexander Jannaeus deliberately went
against prescribed ritual by pouring holy water on the ground
instead of on the altar.
4. Some years after, an open rebellion broke out against Alexander
Jannaeus. During the course of this civil war, Jannaeus’s
opponents called on the Seleucid king Demetrius lll for help.
Demetrius lll invaded and defeated Alexander Jannaeus in a
battle-at which point, however, the Jewish rebels apparently
had second thoughts and decided that they preferred a bad
Hasmonean king to a Seleucid.
The "Seekers of Smooth Things”
1. The civil war against Alexander Jannaeus seems to be echoed
in one of the Dead Sea Scrolls, called the Pesher Nahum, or
the Commentary on Nahum. This genre of literature, pesher,
is a commentary on a biblical book. Typically in these works,
the author cites and interprets the relevant passage in a
biblical book.
2. The Pesher Nahum reads, “This concerns Demetrius King of
Greece, who sought on the counsel of those who seek smooth
things to enter Jerusalem. But God did not permit the city to be
delivered into the hands of the kings of Greece from the time of
Antiochus until the coming out of the rulers of the Kittim.” The
passage goes on: “lnterpreted, this concerns the furious young
lion who executes revenge on those who seek smooth things.”
3. The expression “seekers of smooth things” is an example of
a derogatory pun. The “seekers of smooth things” in Hebrew
is dorshei hachalakot. The pun is dorshei hahalachot, which
means “seekers of the law.” The author of Pesher Nahum is
mocking the group by calling them not the seekers of the law but
the seekers of smooth things-those who take the easy way out.
In fact, “seekers of smooth things” is a name that the author of
this scroll gave to an opposing group-the Pharisees.
Connection between Jesus and David
1. Our review of the various rulers of the Hasmonean kingdom
sets us up for discussing the birth narratives in the Gospels of
Matthew and Luke. Matthew and Luke are the only two of the
four canonical Gospels that contain birth narratives. lf we read
them side by side, we see that the birth narratives in these two
Gospels differ quite a bit.
2. Matthew opens with “an account of the genealogy of Jesus the
Messiah, the son of David.” Notice that this genealogy goes
directly from Jesus to David. Matthew then continues with the
divine conception, Jesus’s birth in Bethlehem, the visit of the
three Magi, and the flight to Egypt. Then, we are introduced to
John the Baptist.
3. In contrast, Luke has a prologue dedicated to Theophilus, which
in Greek means “lover of God.” Then, Luke foretells the birth
of John the Baptist, followed by the birth of Jesus: “ln the sixth
month, the angel Gabriel was sent by God to a town in Galilee
called Nazareth to a virgin engaged to a man whose name was
Joseph of the house of David.” Also in Luke, we read, “Joseph
also went from the town of Nazareth in Galilee to Judea to the
City of David called Bethlehem because he was descended from
the house and family of David.” Notice the repeated emphasis
here on David and the concern to connect Jesus with David.
4. In contrast, the Gospels of Mark and John have no birth narratives.
Instead, they open with the ministry of John the Baptist. We are
first introduced to Jesus as an adult being baptized.
5. The authors of the Gospels of Matthew and Luke clearly went to
great lengths to establish Jesus’s descent from David. This goes
back to biblical Jewish traditions-specifically, several passages
in the Hebrew Bible. Consider, for example, 2 Samuel 7:1-29:
“Moreover, the Lord declares to you that the Lord will make you
a house. When your days are fulfilled and you lie down with your
ancestors, I will raise up your offspring after you who shall come
forth from your body and I will establish his kingdom. David says,
for you O Lord God have spoken. And with your blessing, shall
the house of your servant be blessed forever.”
6. By the 1st century B.C., the late Second Temple period,
many Jews had come to anticipate the arrival of one or more
messianic figures. These messianic figures were eschatological
redeemers, who would come at the end of days, sent by God to
reign over a restored Kingdom of Israel. This restored kingdom
was frequently associated with David.
7. lt is important to realize that, at least among Jews in this period,
these traditions always conceived of the messiahs as human
beings, even if they may have had supernatural qualities. They
were agents of God but not saviors in the Christian sense of
the word.
8. The assumption that Jesus must be descended from David in
order to be the legitimate messiah underlies the birth narratives
in Matthew and Luke. These Gospel authors went to great
lengths to establish Jesus’s descent from David because they
took for granted the principle that to be the legitimate messiah,
Jesus must be descended from David.
9. In order to establish Jesus’s descent from David, the Gospel
authors had to connect Jesus with Bethlehem, which is located
in Judea near Jerusalem. Bethlehem was David’s hometown
and the place where David was crowned king of Israel. The only
problem was that Jesus was from Nazareth in Galilee.
10. Jesus’s origin in Galilee meant that his descent from David was
questionable. Further, his Jewish descent would have been
questionable, as well. ln fact, Galilee had been Judaized by the
Hasmoneans only a century before Jesus’s birth. Therefore,
by Jesus’s time, the population of Galilee included non-Jews
who had been Judaized, or forcibly converted to Judaism, by
the Hasmoneans a century earlier, as well as descendants of
Judean colonists.
11. Matthew and Luke take great pains to insert birth narratives into
their accounts that not only established Jesus as coming from
Judea originally but also established his lineage going back
to David, in order to bolster the claim that he was, in fact, a
legitimate messiah.
Suggested Reading
Goldenberg, The Origins of Judaism, chapter 5, “The First Kingdom of
Judaea?
VanderKam, An Introduction to Early Judaism, “The Hasmonean State,”
pp. 24-32.
Questions to Consider
1. How did the Hasmonean kings deal with the non-Jewish populations
of newly conquered territories, and what was the consequence of
their policy?
2. Who are the “seekers of smooth things” mentioned in some of the
Dead Sea Scrolls?
Lecture 10—Apocalyptic Works and the “Son of Man”
Lecture 10—Apocalyptic Works and the “Son of Man”
Literary works composed in the aftermath of the Maccabean Revolt
were an expression of the Jews’ reactions to events at this time. ln
this lecture, we examine historical works and apocalyptic literature,
including 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, and the books of Daniel and Enoch.
We conclude by discussing the possible meanings of the term “son of man”
in the New Testament in general and the Gospels in particular.
1 and 2 Maccabees
1. The books of 1 and 2 Maccabees are apocryphal works, which
means that they are included in the Catholic Bible but not in the
Hebrew Bible or Protestant Bible. The book 1 Maccabees was
written in Hebrew around 100 B.C.; it is an important historical
source for events in Judea in the 2"“ century B.C.
2. The book 2 Maccabees tells us more about itself than most
ancient writings. The author of 2 Maccabees apparently came
from Alexandria in Egypt. He calls his book, written in Greek, a
summary of a lost five-volume work by a certain Jason of Cyrene.
This book is our only source of information for significant events
in Jerusalem during the 180s and 170s B.C.-especially relating
to the Heliodorus affair.
3. The book 2 Maccabees is an example of what is called pathetic
historiography. ln this term, the word pathetic is derived from the
Greek pathos, meaning “emotion.” The author of 2 Maccabees
attempts to evoke the emotions of the readers through what he
is writing.
Apocalyptic Literature
1. The word apocalyptic comes from the Greek apokalypsis, which
means “to unveil.” Apocalyptic literature deals with the revelation
of secret knowledge. Examples of apocalyptic works include
Daniel, Enoch, Jubilees, 4 Ezra, and in the New Testament, the
Book of Revelation.
2. The main characteristics of apocalyptic literature are the
following:
1. Apocalyptic literature became especially prominent around
165 B.C.-at the time of the Maccabean Revolt. This is not
surprising, because apocalyptic movements and expectations
usually emerge in times of oppression and persecution.
2. The aim of apocalyptic literature is to give encouragement to the
oppressed by stressing that all powers, even the greatest world
empires, will not last and that eventually the Kingdom of God-
the time of salvation-will come.
3. The Book of Daniel is by far the most significant work from the
time of the Maccabean Revolt. From a literary point of view,
the work consists of a narrative section, chapters 1-6, followed
by an apocalyptic section, chapters 7-12. Part of the Book of
Daniel is in Hebrew, and part is in Aramaic. Despite the book’s
complexity, most scholars believe that it is a literary unity. The
Book of Daniel had a tremendous influence on Jewish and, later,
Christian beliefs and expectations.
Flood Stories
1. In addition to the Book of Daniel, there is another corpus of
apocalyptic literature that is equally important but not as well
known: Enochic literature. Enochic literature refers to Jewish
apocalyptic works centering on Enoch, the grandfather of Noah.
Works associated with Enoch are, by extension, connected to
stories of the flood.
2. Flood stories have a long history in the ancient Near East. The
oldest version of the flood story that we have is Sumerian and
dates to the 3"‘ millennium B.C. About 1800 B.C., an author
compiled earlier stories, including a flood story, into a great
work called the Epic of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh was a king of the
Sumerian city of Uruk sometime around 2700-2500 B.C.
knowledge is associated with a key figure. In Gilgamesh, we
read: “Utnapishtim said to him, ‘I will reveal to thee, Gilgamesh,
a hidden matter, and a secret of the gods I will tell thee.”’ In 1
Enoch, we read: “And after that, my grandfather Enoch gave me
the teaching of all the secrets in the Book of Parables, which had
been given to him.”
Enochic Literature
1. If we look back at Genesis, we find that Enoch was not only the
grandfather of Noah but also the seventh forefather from Adam.
According to Genesis: “Thus all the days of Enoch were 365
years. Enoch walked with God. Then he was no more, because
God took him.” The number of years Enoch lived, of course,
recalls the number of days in a calendar year. In fact, among
the mysteries that supposedly were revealed to Enoch in later
traditions were secrets about time and the solar calendar.
2. In the late Second Temple period and later, a great deal of
speculation arose about what had happened to Enoch. This
speculation resulted in a vast corpus of writing called Enochic
literature-the various books of Enoch. In this literature, Enoch
became a prototype of a righteous man who lived in a righteous
age-that is, in the age before the flood. At some point, Enochic
literature transformed Enoch into a heavenly priest and a divine
angel, through whom God’s secrets, especially the secrets of
time, were revealed to humans.
3. Eventually, Enochic literature transformed Enoch into a figure
called Metatron-the most powerful angel in heaven. Metatron is
described as a second Yahweh.
The “Son of Man”
1. The Hebrew term for “son of man” is ben adam; it can refer
simply to humans versus the divine. lf we look at other examples,
however, “son of man” does not always mean just a human being.
depending on the context, it can take on different meanings. Son
of man can either mean a simple human, or the term can draw
on the meaning used in the apocalyptic sections of Daniel.
becomes a judge at the end of days, whereas in Daniel 7, the
son of man appears after the judgment. In order to understand
the references in the New Testament to the son of man, it is
important to understand the meaning of the term in earlier
Jewish traditions, including Jewish apocalyptic literature.
Suggested Reading
Nickelsburg, Ancient Judaism and Christian Origins, chapter 5,
“Eschatology,” pp. 120-134.
Schiffman, Texts and Traditions, chapter 4, “The Hellenistic Age,” pp.
151-169.
Questions to Consider
1. What are the characteristics of apocalyptic literature, and what is the
purpose of this literature?
2. What is Enochic literature?
Literary works composed in the aftermath of the Maccabean Revolt
were an expression of the Jews’ reactions to events at this time. ln
this lecture, we examine historical works and apocalyptic literature,
including 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, and the books of Daniel and Enoch.
We conclude by discussing the possible meanings of the term “son of man”
in the New Testament in general and the Gospels in particular.
1 and 2 Maccabees
1. The books of 1 and 2 Maccabees are apocryphal works, which
means that they are included in the Catholic Bible but not in the
Hebrew Bible or Protestant Bible. The book 1 Maccabees was
written in Hebrew around 100 B.C.; it is an important historical
source for events in Judea in the 2"“ century B.C.
2. The book 2 Maccabees tells us more about itself than most
ancient writings. The author of 2 Maccabees apparently came
from Alexandria in Egypt. He calls his book, written in Greek, a
summary of a lost five-volume work by a certain Jason of Cyrene.
This book is our only source of information for significant events
in Jerusalem during the 180s and 170s B.C.-especially relating
to the Heliodorus affair.
3. The book 2 Maccabees is an example of what is called pathetic
historiography. ln this term, the word pathetic is derived from the
Greek pathos, meaning “emotion.” The author of 2 Maccabees
attempts to evoke the emotions of the readers through what he
is writing.
Apocalyptic Literature
1. The word apocalyptic comes from the Greek apokalypsis, which
means “to unveil.” Apocalyptic literature deals with the revelation
of secret knowledge. Examples of apocalyptic works include
Daniel, Enoch, Jubilees, 4 Ezra, and in the New Testament, the
Book of Revelation.
2. The main characteristics of apocalyptic literature are the
following:
a. Pseudonymity, or false names. ln apocalyptic literature,visions are attributed to noted figures from the past; thesefigures make the secrets of history known to believers.The Book of Daniel
b. Numerical symbolism. Numbers always have a symbolicvalue in apocalyptic literature. For example, the number 4usually denotes totality. Other key numbers are 7 and 12.
c. Secret language. Use of a secret language in apocalypticliterature means that names from the past are often usedto denote contemporary rulers and lands. A well-knownexample of this is in the Book of Revelation, where Babylondenotes Rome. Another use of secret language is thatanimals often represent specific individuals.
d. Doctrine of angels. For example, Daniel mentions theangels Gabriel and Michael; they belong to the group of fouror seven archangels mentioned in other apocalyptic works.
e. Division of history into periods. In apocalyptic literature,history is typically divided into a series of periods, afterwhich comes the time of salvation. For example, in Daniel 7,we read: “These great beasts, four in number, are four kingswho shall arise out of the earth. The fourth beast shall be afourth kingdom on the earth, which shall be different from allthe other kingdoms.”
f. Time of salvation. ln apocalyptic literature, the “world tocome” will emerge after the downfall of this world. Accordingto this expectation, which is expressed in visions, the comingmessiah becomes increasingly significant.
1. Apocalyptic literature became especially prominent around
165 B.C.-at the time of the Maccabean Revolt. This is not
surprising, because apocalyptic movements and expectations
usually emerge in times of oppression and persecution.
2. The aim of apocalyptic literature is to give encouragement to the
oppressed by stressing that all powers, even the greatest world
empires, will not last and that eventually the Kingdom of God-
the time of salvation-will come.
3. The Book of Daniel is by far the most significant work from the
time of the Maccabean Revolt. From a literary point of view,
the work consists of a narrative section, chapters 1-6, followed
by an apocalyptic section, chapters 7-12. Part of the Book of
Daniel is in Hebrew, and part is in Aramaic. Despite the book’s
complexity, most scholars believe that it is a literary unity. The
Book of Daniel had a tremendous influence on Jewish and, later,
Christian beliefs and expectations.
Flood Stories
1. In addition to the Book of Daniel, there is another corpus of
apocalyptic literature that is equally important but not as well
known: Enochic literature. Enochic literature refers to Jewish
apocalyptic works centering on Enoch, the grandfather of Noah.
Works associated with Enoch are, by extension, connected to
stories of the flood.
2. Flood stories have a long history in the ancient Near East. The
oldest version of the flood story that we have is Sumerian and
dates to the 3"‘ millennium B.C. About 1800 B.C., an author
compiled earlier stories, including a flood story, into a great
work called the Epic of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh was a king of the
Sumerian city of Uruk sometime around 2700-2500 B.C.
a. The hero of this story is named Utnapishtim. Utnapishtimtells Gilgamesh that the god Ea instructed him to build aship: “These are the measurements of the bark as you shallbuild her. Let her beam equal her width. Let her deck beroofed like the vault that covers the abyss. Then take up intothe boat the seed of all living creatures.”3. In both the Gilgamesh epic and 1 Enoch, the revelation of secret
b. Notice that the characters in this story, in anticipation ofthe flood, build a large boat and take the seeds of all livingcreatures onto it.
knowledge is associated with a key figure. In Gilgamesh, we
read: “Utnapishtim said to him, ‘I will reveal to thee, Gilgamesh,
a hidden matter, and a secret of the gods I will tell thee.”’ In 1
Enoch, we read: “And after that, my grandfather Enoch gave me
the teaching of all the secrets in the Book of Parables, which had
been given to him.”
Enochic Literature
1. If we look back at Genesis, we find that Enoch was not only the
grandfather of Noah but also the seventh forefather from Adam.
According to Genesis: “Thus all the days of Enoch were 365
years. Enoch walked with God. Then he was no more, because
God took him.” The number of years Enoch lived, of course,
recalls the number of days in a calendar year. In fact, among
the mysteries that supposedly were revealed to Enoch in later
traditions were secrets about time and the solar calendar.
2. In the late Second Temple period and later, a great deal of
speculation arose about what had happened to Enoch. This
speculation resulted in a vast corpus of writing called Enochic
literature-the various books of Enoch. In this literature, Enoch
became a prototype of a righteous man who lived in a righteous
age-that is, in the age before the flood. At some point, Enochic
literature transformed Enoch into a heavenly priest and a divine
angel, through whom God’s secrets, especially the secrets of
time, were revealed to humans.
3. Eventually, Enochic literature transformed Enoch into a figure
called Metatron-the most powerful angel in heaven. Metatron is
described as a second Yahweh.
The “Son of Man”
1. The Hebrew term for “son of man” is ben adam; it can refer
simply to humans versus the divine. lf we look at other examples,
however, “son of man” does not always mean just a human being.
a. For example, in Daniel 7:13, we read: “As I watched in thenight visions, I saw one like a son of man coming with theclouds of heaven. And he came to the ancient one and waspresented before him.” ln this passage, “the ancient one”is God, who is seated on his throne in heaven, surroundedby angels. Here, “son of man” refers to an angel who lookshuman-likely Michael.2. We also see the term son of man in the New Testament, where
b. According to Daniel 7:14, the son of man was given “eternaldominion over all peoples and nations.” We see somethingsimilar in the Enochic traditions. For example, in 1 Enoch,the son of man seems to be an angelic figure with a humanappearance who is identified as Enoch himself. Similar towhat we see in Daniel, we have a juxtaposition between theancient one-God-and a son of man-an angelic figurewith a human appearance.
depending on the context, it can take on different meanings. Son
of man can either mean a simple human, or the term can draw
on the meaning used in the apocalyptic sections of Daniel.
a. ln the Gospel accounts, the phrase son of man occurswith the definite article: “the son of man.” For example, inMatthew 24:30-31, we read: “Then the sign of the Son ofMan will appear in heaven. And then all the tribes of theearth will mourn, and they will see the Son of Man comingon the clouds of heaven with power and great glory.”3. In these above passages in the Gospel accounts, the son of man
b. Matthew 24:37-39 says, “For as the days of Noah were, sowill be the coming of the Son of Man. For as in those daysbefore the flood, they were eating and drinking, marryingand giving in marriage, until the day Noah entered the ark,and they knew nothing until the flood came and swept themaway. So too will be the coming of the Son of Man.”
c. ln Matthew 25:31-32, we read, “When the Son of Mancomes in his glory and all the angels with him, then he willsit on the throne of his glory. All the nations will be gatheredbefore him. And he will separate people one from another,as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats.”
becomes a judge at the end of days, whereas in Daniel 7, the
son of man appears after the judgment. In order to understand
the references in the New Testament to the son of man, it is
important to understand the meaning of the term in earlier
Jewish traditions, including Jewish apocalyptic literature.
Suggested Reading
Nickelsburg, Ancient Judaism and Christian Origins, chapter 5,
“Eschatology,” pp. 120-134.
Schiffman, Texts and Traditions, chapter 4, “The Hellenistic Age,” pp.
151-169.
Questions to Consider
1. What are the characteristics of apocalyptic literature, and what is the
purpose of this literature?
2. What is Enochic literature?
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)