Literary works composed in the aftermath of the Maccabean Revolt
were an expression of the Jews’ reactions to events at this time. ln
this lecture, we examine historical works and apocalyptic literature,
including 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, and the books of Daniel and Enoch.
We conclude by discussing the possible meanings of the term “son of man”
in the New Testament in general and the Gospels in particular.
1 and 2 Maccabees
1. The books of 1 and 2 Maccabees are apocryphal works, which
means that they are included in the Catholic Bible but not in the
Hebrew Bible or Protestant Bible. The book 1 Maccabees was
written in Hebrew around 100 B.C.; it is an important historical
source for events in Judea in the 2"“ century B.C.
2. The book 2 Maccabees tells us more about itself than most
ancient writings. The author of 2 Maccabees apparently came
from Alexandria in Egypt. He calls his book, written in Greek, a
summary of a lost five-volume work by a certain Jason of Cyrene.
This book is our only source of information for significant events
in Jerusalem during the 180s and 170s B.C.-especially relating
to the Heliodorus affair.
3. The book 2 Maccabees is an example of what is called pathetic
historiography. ln this term, the word pathetic is derived from the
Greek pathos, meaning “emotion.” The author of 2 Maccabees
attempts to evoke the emotions of the readers through what he
is writing.
Apocalyptic Literature
1. The word apocalyptic comes from the Greek apokalypsis, which
means “to unveil.” Apocalyptic literature deals with the revelation
of secret knowledge. Examples of apocalyptic works include
Daniel, Enoch, Jubilees, 4 Ezra, and in the New Testament, the
Book of Revelation.
2. The main characteristics of apocalyptic literature are the
following:
a. Pseudonymity, or false names. ln apocalyptic literature,visions are attributed to noted figures from the past; thesefigures make the secrets of history known to believers.The Book of Daniel
b. Numerical symbolism. Numbers always have a symbolicvalue in apocalyptic literature. For example, the number 4usually denotes totality. Other key numbers are 7 and 12.
c. Secret language. Use of a secret language in apocalypticliterature means that names from the past are often usedto denote contemporary rulers and lands. A well-knownexample of this is in the Book of Revelation, where Babylondenotes Rome. Another use of secret language is thatanimals often represent specific individuals.
d. Doctrine of angels. For example, Daniel mentions theangels Gabriel and Michael; they belong to the group of fouror seven archangels mentioned in other apocalyptic works.
e. Division of history into periods. In apocalyptic literature,history is typically divided into a series of periods, afterwhich comes the time of salvation. For example, in Daniel 7,we read: “These great beasts, four in number, are four kingswho shall arise out of the earth. The fourth beast shall be afourth kingdom on the earth, which shall be different from allthe other kingdoms.”
f. Time of salvation. ln apocalyptic literature, the “world tocome” will emerge after the downfall of this world. Accordingto this expectation, which is expressed in visions, the comingmessiah becomes increasingly significant.
1. Apocalyptic literature became especially prominent around
165 B.C.-at the time of the Maccabean Revolt. This is not
surprising, because apocalyptic movements and expectations
usually emerge in times of oppression and persecution.
2. The aim of apocalyptic literature is to give encouragement to the
oppressed by stressing that all powers, even the greatest world
empires, will not last and that eventually the Kingdom of God-
the time of salvation-will come.
3. The Book of Daniel is by far the most significant work from the
time of the Maccabean Revolt. From a literary point of view,
the work consists of a narrative section, chapters 1-6, followed
by an apocalyptic section, chapters 7-12. Part of the Book of
Daniel is in Hebrew, and part is in Aramaic. Despite the book’s
complexity, most scholars believe that it is a literary unity. The
Book of Daniel had a tremendous influence on Jewish and, later,
Christian beliefs and expectations.
Flood Stories
1. In addition to the Book of Daniel, there is another corpus of
apocalyptic literature that is equally important but not as well
known: Enochic literature. Enochic literature refers to Jewish
apocalyptic works centering on Enoch, the grandfather of Noah.
Works associated with Enoch are, by extension, connected to
stories of the flood.
2. Flood stories have a long history in the ancient Near East. The
oldest version of the flood story that we have is Sumerian and
dates to the 3"‘ millennium B.C. About 1800 B.C., an author
compiled earlier stories, including a flood story, into a great
work called the Epic of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh was a king of the
Sumerian city of Uruk sometime around 2700-2500 B.C.
a. The hero of this story is named Utnapishtim. Utnapishtimtells Gilgamesh that the god Ea instructed him to build aship: “These are the measurements of the bark as you shallbuild her. Let her beam equal her width. Let her deck beroofed like the vault that covers the abyss. Then take up intothe boat the seed of all living creatures.”3. In both the Gilgamesh epic and 1 Enoch, the revelation of secret
b. Notice that the characters in this story, in anticipation ofthe flood, build a large boat and take the seeds of all livingcreatures onto it.
knowledge is associated with a key figure. In Gilgamesh, we
read: “Utnapishtim said to him, ‘I will reveal to thee, Gilgamesh,
a hidden matter, and a secret of the gods I will tell thee.”’ In 1
Enoch, we read: “And after that, my grandfather Enoch gave me
the teaching of all the secrets in the Book of Parables, which had
been given to him.”
Enochic Literature
1. If we look back at Genesis, we find that Enoch was not only the
grandfather of Noah but also the seventh forefather from Adam.
According to Genesis: “Thus all the days of Enoch were 365
years. Enoch walked with God. Then he was no more, because
God took him.” The number of years Enoch lived, of course,
recalls the number of days in a calendar year. In fact, among
the mysteries that supposedly were revealed to Enoch in later
traditions were secrets about time and the solar calendar.
2. In the late Second Temple period and later, a great deal of
speculation arose about what had happened to Enoch. This
speculation resulted in a vast corpus of writing called Enochic
literature-the various books of Enoch. In this literature, Enoch
became a prototype of a righteous man who lived in a righteous
age-that is, in the age before the flood. At some point, Enochic
literature transformed Enoch into a heavenly priest and a divine
angel, through whom God’s secrets, especially the secrets of
time, were revealed to humans.
3. Eventually, Enochic literature transformed Enoch into a figure
called Metatron-the most powerful angel in heaven. Metatron is
described as a second Yahweh.
The “Son of Man”
1. The Hebrew term for “son of man” is ben adam; it can refer
simply to humans versus the divine. lf we look at other examples,
however, “son of man” does not always mean just a human being.
a. For example, in Daniel 7:13, we read: “As I watched in thenight visions, I saw one like a son of man coming with theclouds of heaven. And he came to the ancient one and waspresented before him.” ln this passage, “the ancient one”is God, who is seated on his throne in heaven, surroundedby angels. Here, “son of man” refers to an angel who lookshuman-likely Michael.2. We also see the term son of man in the New Testament, where
b. According to Daniel 7:14, the son of man was given “eternaldominion over all peoples and nations.” We see somethingsimilar in the Enochic traditions. For example, in 1 Enoch,the son of man seems to be an angelic figure with a humanappearance who is identified as Enoch himself. Similar towhat we see in Daniel, we have a juxtaposition between theancient one-God-and a son of man-an angelic figurewith a human appearance.
depending on the context, it can take on different meanings. Son
of man can either mean a simple human, or the term can draw
on the meaning used in the apocalyptic sections of Daniel.
a. ln the Gospel accounts, the phrase son of man occurswith the definite article: “the son of man.” For example, inMatthew 24:30-31, we read: “Then the sign of the Son ofMan will appear in heaven. And then all the tribes of theearth will mourn, and they will see the Son of Man comingon the clouds of heaven with power and great glory.”3. In these above passages in the Gospel accounts, the son of man
b. Matthew 24:37-39 says, “For as the days of Noah were, sowill be the coming of the Son of Man. For as in those daysbefore the flood, they were eating and drinking, marryingand giving in marriage, until the day Noah entered the ark,and they knew nothing until the flood came and swept themaway. So too will be the coming of the Son of Man.”
c. ln Matthew 25:31-32, we read, “When the Son of Mancomes in his glory and all the angels with him, then he willsit on the throne of his glory. All the nations will be gatheredbefore him. And he will separate people one from another,as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats.”
becomes a judge at the end of days, whereas in Daniel 7, the
son of man appears after the judgment. In order to understand
the references in the New Testament to the son of man, it is
important to understand the meaning of the term in earlier
Jewish traditions, including Jewish apocalyptic literature.
Suggested Reading
Nickelsburg, Ancient Judaism and Christian Origins, chapter 5,
“Eschatology,” pp. 120-134.
Schiffman, Texts and Traditions, chapter 4, “The Hellenistic Age,” pp.
151-169.
Questions to Consider
1. What are the characteristics of apocalyptic literature, and what is the
purpose of this literature?
2. What is Enochic literature?
